Did the Ancient People Believe Myths Were Real?
An interesting debate has taken place since the earliest days of philosophical thought, raising the question: Are myths meant to be viewed literally? This seemingly simple question has sparked countless debates and interpretations among academics from various schools of thought. While most of these schools aim to decipher ancient thinking through logical explanations, we also have perspectives passed down by the old skálds, telling a story—a train of thought that stretches as far back in time as the myths themselves.
In the context of the mythic literalism vs allegory debate, it’s important to first define our terms to ensure clarity. This will help us avoid confusion and stay true to the points being made without veering off-topic.
Mythic literalism can be simply defined as the belief that mythology conveys absolute truths. In this view, mythological stories are interpreted literally, without much regard for allegorical meaning.
Allegory, on the other hand, is a form of storytelling—whether in a story, poem, or picture—that contains hidden meanings intended to pass down knowledge. Allegorical interpretation leaves room for variations in belief, viewing myths as open to symbolic meaning rather than just literal interpretation.
In ancient times, myths often embodied both literal truths and allegorical knowledge, passed down through generations. The beauty of myth lies in its poetic nature, where stories are told in ways that captivate the audience while preserving the histories and wisdom of a people.
Those who reject mythic literalism often turn to ancient Greek philosophers to support their beliefs. By examining a few quotes from these philosophical texts, we can gain a clearer understanding of how these ideas are used today and how they may not fully align with the common beliefs of the time in which they were written.
Greek philosophers
Xenophanes famous critique:
“But mortals suppose that gods are born, wear their own clothes and have a voice and body.”
“ The Ethiopians say that their gods are snub-nosed and black, while the Thracians say that theirs have blue eyes and red hair.”
— Xenophanes, Fragments 14,16 (Diels-Kranz)
In Fragment 15, Xenophanes humorously suggests that if oxen could draw, they would depict their gods as resembling oxen, illustrating how humans project their own characteristics onto thedivine. This critique underscores his argument against the literal interpretation of myths, showing that ancient peoples often believed their gods were physical beings who closely resembled themselves. Xenophanes was among the first to challenge this traditional worldview, which held that humans were the direct descendants or creations of the gods, a belief deeply embedded in Greek society and reflected in the works of Homer and Hesiod. By advocating for a more abstract and symbolic understanding of the divine, Xenophanes broke from the prevailing mythic literalism of his time, arguing that humans mold their gods to fit their own image and comfort. His philosophy marked a significant attempt at a departure from the traditional, literal view of the gods as anthropomorphic beings with human-like desires and behaviors. Thus, supporting the idea that the ancient poets and people did indeed believe in mythic literalism.
Plato openly criticized the literal interpretation of myths in The Republic, especially concerning the depiction of gods:
“We must not accept the Homeric tradition concerning the gods… Such utterances are both impious and false, and are especially to be censured if the falsehood is an idle one, not having any further purpose, but being told simply to deceive.”
— Plato, Republic.
Plato departs from the traditional approach of mythic literalism by emphasizing the use of myths as allegories rather than taking them as literal accounts of the gods’ actions. He promotes the idea that myths should be reinterpreted to convey moral lessons and serve as tools for ethical education. By rejecting the literal belief in the gods as portrayed in traditional mythology, Plato challenges widely accepted views and reshapes the stories to reflect his philosophical values of justice, virtue, and reason. This move toward allegorical interpretation represents a clear break from the conventional Greek belief in the gods as real, interventionist beings.
In contrast, the works of Homer, Herodotus, and others portray the ancient Greeks as both respecting and fearing their gods as literal beings who held sway over their daily lives, emotions, and fortunes, often depicting the gods as making their presence known to their followers.
In the following passages we will examine some ancient histories and philosophies that support the more traditional view of the gods as literal beings taking an active role in their daily lives.
In this passage from Herodotus’ Histories (Book 6, 105-106), Phidippides, an Athenian runner, encounters the god Pan while traveling to Sparta. Pan speaks to him, asking why the Athenians had neglected to honor him, despite his past help and future promises. The Athenians believed Phidippides’ account and, in response, built a temple for Pan and offered yearly sacrifices. This story shows how the ancient Greeks viewed their gods as literal beings who could directly intervene in human affairs, influencing decisions and demanding worship.
105: And first, while they were yet in the city, the generals sent as a herald to Sparta Phidippides, an Athenian, and one, moreover, that was a runner of long distances and made that his calling. This man, as he said himself and told the Athenians, when he was in the Parthenian hills above Tegea, met with Pan; who, calling to Phidippides by name, bade him say to the Athenians, "Why is it that ye take no thought for me, that am your friend, and ere now have oft been serviceable to you, and will be so again?" This story the Athenians believed to be true, and when their state won to prosperity they founded a temple of Pan beneath the acropolis, and for that message sought the god's favour with yearly sacrifices and torch-races.
106: But now, at the time when he was sent by the generals and said that Pan had appeared to him, this Phidippides was at Sparta on the day after he left Athens; and he came before the rulers and said, "Lacedaemonians, the Athenians entreat you to send them help, and not suffer a most ancient city of Hellas to be brought into bondage by foreigners; for even now Eretria has been enslaved, and Hellas is the weaker by the loss of a notable city." Thus Phidippides gave the message wherewith he was charged, and the Lacedaemonians resolved to send help to the Athenians; but they could not do this immediately, being loath to break their law; for it was the ninth day of the first part of the month, and they would make no expedition (they said) on the ninth day, when the moon was not full.
–Herodotus book 6
In this passage from Arrian’s “Anabasis,” the historian expresses his belief that Alexander the Great’s extraordinary life and achievements were the result of divine influence. Arrian suggests that a figure as remarkable as Alexander could not have been born without the intervention of the gods, indicating the widespread belief in divine involvement in human affairs. He further supports this claim by referencing oracular responses, visions, and dreams after Alexander’s death, all pointing to the gods’ recognition of him as more than human.
"For my own part, I think there was at that time no race of men, no city, nor even a single individual to whom Alexander’s name and fame had not penetrated. For this reason it seems to me that a hero totally unlike any other human being could not have been born without the agency of the deity. And this is said to have been revealed after Alexander’s death by the oracular responses, by the visions which presented themselves to various people, and by the dreams which were seen by different individuals. It is also shown by the honour paid to him by men up to the present time, and by the recollection which is still held of him as more than human. Even at the present time, after so long an interval, other oracular responses in his honour have been received by the nation of the Macedonians. In relating the history of Alexander’s achievements, there are some things which I have been compelled to censure; but I am not ashamed to admire Alexander himself. Those actions I have branded as bad, both from a regard to my own veracity, and at the same time for the benefit of mankind. For this reason I think that I undertook the task of writing this history not without the divine inspiration."
–Arrian, Anabasis.
Homer, the renowned Greek poet, offers clear evidence that the ancient Greeks were deeply pious and held sincere beliefs in their gods. Throughout his epic works, such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, the gods are portrayed as real and powerful beings who actively intervene in human affairs. The Greeks believed that their successes, failures, and even moral decisions were influenced by the gods, and they frequently offered prayers, sacrifices, and acts of worship to gain divine favor. Homer’s depiction of the gods as ever-present forces in the lives of mortals underscores the genuine belief the ancient Greeks held in the gods’ literal existence and power.
"Then spoke the father of gods and men, and his word was law: 'No more shall the gods take part in this battle… anyone found violating my order will be struck with thunder and lightning, and I will hurl him down into the depths of Tartarus, where the iron gates and bronze threshold hold in those depths as far below the earth as the earth is from heaven."
–Iliad, Book 8, Lines 1-27
"Then bright-eyed Athena, disguised as Mentor, spoke to him: 'Telemachus, you will neither lack courage nor sense. If your father’s spirit lives in you, you will never be base or cowardly. He has not perished without hope of return… I will prepare a swift ship for you and go with you myself."
–Odyssey, Book 2, Lines 267-272
Germanic Lore
Our earliest written sources tell us that the Germanic peoples believed they descended from an earth-born god, Tuisto, and his son Mannus, who was considered the progenitor of their race. Mannus had three sons, each of whom became the namesake for different tribal groups. This belief persisted for centuries, as kings traced their genealogies back to gods such as Odin, Ingvi, and Heimdallr. In the Völuspá, the Völva, a seeress, asks to be heard by both the gods and Heimdallr’s kindred (born high and low), as she recounts the mythic past, and prophesied the future. Later, in the Rígsthula, we are told how Heimdallr, in the guise of Ríg, walks among men and establishes the three classes of society—Thrall, Karl, and Jarl—claiming Jarl’s lineage as his own son. This divine ancestry was the foundation for kings to assert their divine right to rule.
These myths were preserved in sacred verse, adhering to strict rules of composition to maintain their meaning. Tacitus, in his Germania, notes, "In the traditional songs which form their only record of the past…" These traditional songs, found in the surviving Poetic Edda and skaldic poetry, reveal the mythic histories and contemporary lifestyle of the Germanic peoples, offering insight into how they treated myths—both literally and allegorically.
Mythology serves to pass down knowledge for future generations, blending both literal and allegorical teachings. Odin’s wisdom in the Hávamál presents direct lessons, yet we can also find a deeper meaning behind Loki’s presence throughout the mythology. As skalds composed these tales, they employed cryptic language and alliteration, weaving together stories familiar to their audience. This form of entertainment not only engaged listeners but also required them to piece together clues to identify characters and events.
While mythic literalism is relevant to understanding how ancient people saw their gods—believing they created the world and took pride in their divine ancestry—there was also likely an understanding of the deeper meanings embedded within the stories, offering valuable lessons for everyday life.
As the Enlightenment era approached, a shift toward analytical thinking overtook the practice of traditional interpretation. Many people began to lose “faith” and viewed mythology as nothing more than fables from an archaic past, rejecting the mythic literalism of the ancient peoples.
Instead, they applied an allegorical lens to anything that couldn’t be scientifically proven. However, heathenry did not dismiss the scientific understanding of their time. In fact, mythology can be seen as an attempt to explain the “science” of their era. By linking mythological teachings to natural phenomena, the heathens were offering explanations for the world around them.
For instance, they didn’t believe Thor was lightning, but rather that the lightning was caused by his hammer. Thunder was the sound of his chariot rumbling across the sky. The gods were seen as real entities involved in their daily lives, influencing the natural world through their actions. The heathens believed that praying to the gods for help (bjarga) could protect them from destructive forces, such as the Rime-Thurs, or needs (nauds). A belief that is greatly attested to.
In this passage from The Njal Saga, Steinvora challenges the Christian missionary Thangbrand by asserting the reality of Thor’s power. She claims that Thor once challenged Christ to single combat, and Christ did not dare fight him. She further argues that Thor shattered Thangbrand’s ship, describing in verse how Thor, in his wrath, caused a storm that destroyed the vessel. This shows that Thor was seen as a literal, powerful being, capable of physical intervention and superior to Christ in Steinvora’s view.
"Thangbrand and his messmate fared right through the west country, and Steinvora, the mother of Ref the Skald, came against him; she preached the heathen faith to Thangbrand and made him a long speech. Thangbrand held his peace while she spoke, but made a long speech after her, and turned all that she had said the wrong way against her.
"Hast thou heard," she said, "how Thor challenged Christ to single combat, and how he did not dare to fight with Thor?"
"I have heard tell," says Thangbrand, "that Thor was naught but dust and ashes, if God had not willed that he should live.”
"Knowest thou," she says, "who it was that shattered thy ship?"
"What hast thou to say about that?" he asks.
"That I will tell thee," she says.
He that giant's offspring slayeth
Broke the new-field's bison stout,
Thus the Gods, bell's warder grieving.
Crushed the falcon of the strand;
To the courser of the causeway
Little good was Christ I ween,
When Thor shattered ships to pieces
Gylfi's hart no God could help."
While passages from Landnámabók show a deep respect for Thor. Highlighting how the Norse people revered their gods.
“Thorolf was a great sacrificer; he believed in Thor and named all his estate after him. He called it Thor’s Ness and the bay was called Thor’s Bay, and he made Thor the owner of his estate.”
-Landnámabók (The Book of Settlements)
While myths were indeed stories, I argue that these stories were understood as literal truths by most ancient people. Though there was room for interpreting certain aspects of the myths, this did not challenge or deny the fundamental realities they conveyed. The gods were revered as living beings that actively shaped the world and their lives. Archaeological findings and written records provide undeniable evidence of this veneration, demonstrating that from our earliest accounts to the last known attestations, these myths were regarded as reflections of a real history. This history was passed down through generations to ensure that future descendants could learn from and carry on the beliefs of their ancestors. As the German classical philosopher Walter Friedrich Gustav Hermann Otto wrote:
“When Wilamowitz demands, and rightly so, that our first premise must be "The gods are there," then this means, if we examine it more precisely, "The myth is there." For if the gods "are," if they are real, then they cannot fail to have distinctive characteristics.”
-W.F. Otto- Dionysus Myth and Cult
The debate between mythic literalism and allegorical interpretation is one that persists even today, as modern thinkers reconsider ancient beliefs. While allegorical interpretations certainly have their place within myth, it is important to understand that mythic literalism was deeply embedded in the traditional worldview of ancient civilizations. To reject literalism is to break from the historical continuity of these beliefs. Myths served not only as a means of storytelling but as a foundation for understanding the world, shaping both personal and communal identities, and grounding religious practices. In this sense, the shift away from mythic literalism represents a movement toward more abstract, philosophical interpretations, which, while valuable, reflect adifferent era of thought—one that diverges from the ancient roots of belief in the real, active presence of the gods.
–Kyle Davis, 10/10/24
Fantastic article, thank you all for your excellent work and for guiding the folk to proper perspective 🔥